The conversion efficiency and stability of crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells are influenced by various factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic.

1. Material Quality:
   • Crystal Purity: The purity of the silicon crystal is crucial. Any impurities can create defects in the crystal lattice, affecting electron mobility and recombination rates.
   • Defects and Doping: Crystal defects and the presence of doping elements can impact carrier mobility, charge carrier recombination, and overall cell performance.
2. Optical Properties:
   • Anti-Reflective Coating: A well-designed anti-reflective coating helps minimize reflection losses and enhances light absorption.
   • Texturing: Surface texturing can improve light trapping within the cell, increasing the absorption of incident light.
3. Electrical Properties:
   • Carrier Lifetime: Long carrier lifetimes are desirable to allow carriers to reach the electrical contacts before recombination occurs.
   • Doping Levels: Properly controlled doping levels in the p-type and n-type regions are critical for achieving the desired electrical characteristics.
4. Passivation:
   • Surface Passivation: Effective passivation of the cell’s surface reduces recombination at the semiconductor-electrolyte interface.
   • Edge Passivation: Passivation of the edges helps minimize edge recombination.
5. Temperature:
   • Temperature Dependence: Solar cell efficiency is sensitive to temperature. Higher temperatures can lead to increased electron-hole pair recombination.
6. Light-Induced Degradation (LID):
   • LID Effects: Some c-Si cells may experience light-induced degradation, where the efficiency decreases upon initial exposure to light. This is often transient and can be mitigated with additional treatments.
7. Mechanical Stress:
   • Mechanical Stability: Mechanical stress, such as that caused by thermal cycling or external pressure, can impact the structural integrity of the cell and affect performance.
8. Encapsulation:
   • Encapsulation Materials: The materials used for encapsulation (protective layers) should be durable and provide effective insulation against environmental factors like moisture and oxygen.
9. Contact Resistance:
   • Metal Contacts: Low contact resistance between the semiconductor and metal contacts is essential for efficient charge extraction.
10. Quality of Manufacturing Processes:
    • Uniformity: Uniformity in the manufacturing processes ensures consistent cell performance across the entire module.

Continuous research and development efforts focus on addressing these factors to enhance the efficiency and stability of crystalline silicon solar cells. Advances in materials, manufacturing techniques, and cell designs contribute to ongoing improvements in the performance and cost-effectiveness of c-Si solar technology.